Oten Notes Engineering Studies Aeronautical Module

Gill Sans Bold Engineering Studies HSC Course Stage 6 Aeronautical engineering ES/S6 – HSC 41097 P0022161 Acknowledgments This publication is copyright Learning Materials Production, Open Training and Education Network – Distance Education, NSW Department of Education and Training, however it may contain material from other sources which is not owned by Learning Materials Production. Learning Materials Production would like to acknowledge the following people and organisations whose material has been used. Board of Studies, NSW Hawker de Havilland Page Aircraft Company Pty Ltd Bankstown Airport Padstow Aeroskills CentreAll reasonable efforts have been made to obtain copyright permissions. All claims will be settled in good faith. Materials devlopment: Paul Soares, Harry Taylor, Ian Webster Coordination: Jeff Appleby Content edit: John Cook, Josephine Wilms Illustrations: Tom Brown, Barbara Buining DTP: Nick Loutkovsky, Carolina Barbieri Copyright in this material is res erved to the Crown in the right of the State of New South Wales. Reproduction or transmittal in whole, or in part, other than in accordance with provisions of the Copyright Act, is prohibited without the written authority of Learning Materials Production. Learning Materials Production, Open Training and Education Network – Distance Education, NSW Department of Education and Training, 2000. 51 Wentworth Rd. Strathfield NSW 2135. Revised 2001 Module contents Subject overview †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. iii Module overview†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. vii Module components †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â ‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. vii Module outcomes †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ x Indicative time †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ x Resource requirements†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. xi Icons †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. xiii Glossary†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ xv Directive terms†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ xix Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope of the profession and engineering report†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 1–65 Part 2: Aeronautical engineering – istory of flight†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 1–37 Part 3: Aeronautical engineering – mechanics and hydraulics †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 1–73 Part 4: Aeronautical engineering – materials †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 1–49 Part 5: Aeronautical engineering – communication †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 1–44 Bibliography†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 45 Module evaluation †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 9 i ii Subject overview Engineering Studies Preliminary Course Household appliances examines common appliances found in the home. Simple appliances are analysed to identify materials and their applications. Electrical principles, researching methods and techniques to communicate technical information are introduced. The first student engineering report is completed undertaking an investigation of materials used in a household appliance. Landscape products investigates engineering principles by focusing on common products, such as lawnmowers and clothes hoists. The historical development of these types of products demonstrates he effect materials development and technological advancements have on the design of products. Engineering techniques of force analysis are described. Orthogonal drawing methods are explained. An engineering report is completed that analyses lawnmower components. Braking systems uses braking components and systems to describe engineering principles. The historical changes in materials and design are investigated. The relationship between internal structure of iron and steel and the resulting engineering properties of those materials is detailed. Hydraulic principles are described and examples provided in braking systems. Orthogonal drawing echniques are further developed. An engineering report is completed that requires an analysis of a braking system component. iii Bio-engineering both engineering principles and also the scope of the bio-engineering profession. Careers and current issues in this field are explored. Engineers as managers and ethical issues confronted by the bio engineer are considered. An engineering report is completed that investigates a current bioengineered product and describes the related issues that the bio-engineer would need to consider before, during and after this product development. Irrigation systems is the elective topic for the reliminary modules. The historical development of irrigation systems is described and the impact of these systems on society discussed. Hydraulic analysis of irrigation systems is explained. The effect on irrigation product range that has occurred with the introduction of is detailed. An engineering report on an irrigation system is completed. iv HSC Engineering Studies modules Civil structures examines engineering principles as the y relate to civil structures, such as bridges and buildings. The historical influences of engineering, the impact of engineering innovation, and environmental implications are discussed with eference to bridges. Mechanical analysis of bridges is used to introduce concepts of truss analysis and stress/strain. Material properties and application are explained with reference to a variety of civil structures. Technical communication skills described in this module include assembly drawing. The engineering report requires a comparison of two engineering solutions to solve the same engineering situation. Personal and public transport uses bicycles, motor vehicles and trains as examples to explain engineering concepts. The historical development of cars is used to demonstrate the developing material ist available for the engineer. The impact on society of these developments is discussed. The mechanical analysis of mechanisms involves the effect of friction. Energy and power relationships a re explained. Methods of testing materials, and modifying material properties are examined. A series of industrial manufacturing processes is described. Electrical concepts, such as power distribution, are detailed are introduced. The use of freehand technical sketches. Lifting devices investigates the social impact that devices raging from complex cranes to simple car jacks, have had on our society. The mechanical oncepts are explained, including the hydraulic concepts often used in lifting apparatus. The industrial processes used to form metals and the methods used to control physical properties are explained. Electrical requirements for many devices are detailed. The technical rules for sectioned orthogonal drawings are demonstrated. The engineering report is based on a comparison of two lifting devices. v Aeronautical engineering explores the scope of the aeronautical engineering profession. Career opportunities are considered, as well as ethical issues related to the profession . Technologies unique to this engineering field are described.Mechanical analysis includes aeronautical flight principles and fluid mechanics. Materials and material processes concentrate on their application to aeronautics. The corrosion process is explained and preventative techniques listed. Communicating technical information using both freehand and computer-aided drawing is required. The engineering report is based on the aeronautical profession, current projects and issues. Telecommunications engineering examines the history and impact on society of this field. Ethical issues and current technologies are described. The materials section concentrates on specialised esting, copper and its alloys, semiconductors and fibre optics. Electronic systems such as analogue and digital are explained and an overview of a variety of other technologies in this field is presented. Analysis, related to telecommunication products, is used to reinforce mechanical concepts. Communicating technica l information using both freehand and computer-aided drawing is required. The engineering report is based on the telecommunication profession, current projects and issues. Figure 0. 1 Modules vi Module overview Aeronautical engineering is the first focus engineering module in the HSC course.The scope of the aeronautical engineering profession is investigated. Career opportunities are considered, as well as ethical issues related to the profession. Technologies unique to this engineering field are described. The mechanical analysis topics include aeronautical flight principles and fluid mechanics. Materials, and material processes concentrate on those most associated with the aeronautical engineer. The corrosion process is explained and preventative techniques listed. Communicating technical information using both freehand and computer aided drawing are required. The engineering report is based on the aeronautical rofession, current projects and issues. Module components Each module contains three components, the preliminary pages, the teaching/learning section and additional resources. †¢ The preliminary pages include: – module contents – subject overview – module overview – icons – glossary – directive terms. Figure 0. 2 Preliminary pages vii †¢ The teaching/learning parts may include: – part contents – introduction – teaching/learning text and tasks – exercises – check list. Figure 0. 3 Teaching/learning section †¢ The additional information may include: – module appendix – bibliography – Additional resource module evaluation. Figure 0. 4 Additional materials Support materials such as audiotapes, video cassettes and computer disks will sometimes accompany a module. viii Module outcomes At the end of this module, you should be working towards being able to: †¢ describe the scope of engineering and critically analyse current innovations (H1. 1) †¢ differentiate between properties of materials and justify the selection of materials, components and processes in engineering (H1. 2) †¢ analyse and synthesise engineering applications in specific fields and report on the importance of these to society (H2. 2) †¢ se appropriate written, oral and presentation skills in the preparation of detailed engineering reports (H3. 2) †¢ investigate the extent of technological change in engineering (H4. 1) †¢ appreciate social, environmental and cultural implications of technological change in engineering and apply them to the analysis of specific problems (H4. 3) †¢ select and use appropriate management and planning skills related to engineering (H5. 2) †¢ demonstrate skills in analysis, synthesis and experimentation related to engineering (H6. 2) Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus,  © Board of Studies, NSW, 1999.Refer to for original and current documents. ix Indicative time The Prelimin ary course is 120 hours (indicative time) and the HSC course is 120 hours (indicative time). The following table shows the approximate amount of time you should spend on this module. Preliminary modules Percentage of time Approximate number of hours Household appliances 20% 24 hr Landscape products 20% 24 hr Braking systems 20% 24 hr Bio-engineering 20% 24 hr Elective: Irrigation systems 20% 24 hr HSC modules Percentage of time Approximate number of hours Civil structures 20% 24 hr Personal and public transport 20% 24 hr Lifting devices 0% 24 hr Aeronautical engineering 20% 24 hr Telecommunications engineering 20% 24 hr There are five parts in Aeronautical engineering. Each part will require about four to five hours of work. You should aim to complete the module within 20 to 25 hours. x Resource requirements During this module you will need to access a range of resources including: †¢ technical drawing equipment – drawing board, tee square, set squares (30? , 60? , 45? ) , protractor, pencils (0. 5 mm mechanical pencil with B lead), eraser, pair of compasses, pair of dividers †¢ calculator †¢ rule †¢ thumb tack or pin †¢ small sheet of thin cardboard pair of scissors †¢ cotton reel. xi xii Icons As you work through this module you will see symbols known as icons. The purpose of these icons is to gain your attention and to indicate particular types of tasks you need to complete in this module. The list below shows the icons and outlines the types of tasks for Stage 6 Engineering studies. Computer This icon indicates tasks such as researching using an electronic database or calculating using a spreadsheet. Danger This icon indicates tasks which may present a danger and to proceed with care. Discuss This icon indicates tasks such as discussing a point or ebating an issue. Examine This icon indicates tasks such as reading an article or watching a video. Hands on This icon indicates tasks such as collecting data or conducting exp eriments. Respond This icon indicates the need to write a response or draw an object. Think This icon indicates tasks such as reflecting on your experience or picturing yourself in a situation. xiii Return This icon indicates exercises for you to return to your teacher when you have completed the part. (OTEN OLP students will need to refer to their Learner's Guide for instructions on which exercises to return). xiv GlossaryAs you work through the module you will encounter a range of terms that have specific meanings. The first time a term occurs in the text it will appear in bold. The list below explains the terms you will encounter in this module. aerofoil any surface such as a wing, aileron, or stabiliser, designed to help in lifting or controlling an aircraft aileron special purpose hinged flap on the rear edge of a wing designed to control sideways balance autogyro early form of helicopter with a propeller and freely rotating horizontal vanes biplane aeroplane with two sets of w ings, one above the other cambered arched or curved upwards in the middle oncurrent passing through the same point, foe example, a number of forces are concurrent if an extension of the lines representing their directions all cross at the same point cowling removable cover on aircraft engine drag the force, due to the relative airflow, exerted on an aeroplane and tending to reduce its forward motion elevator a hinged, horizontal surface on an aeroplane, generally located at the tail end of the fuselage and used to control the forward/backward tilt empirical data information from experience or experiment, not from any scientific or theoretical deduction fatigue the condition of having experienced many cycles or epeated applications of stress that is lower than would normally be required to cause failure, but can cause failure under these conditions flap hinged or sliding section on the rear edge of a wing designed to control lift xv fuselage gyro gyroscopic device for keeping an obje ct, such as a rocket, in stable controlled flight ICBM missile designed to deliver a warhead from one continent to another interplanetary between planets, from planet to planet Mach 5 A speed that is five times the speed of sound at the particular altitude (the speed of sound at sea level is approximately 380 meters per second or 1370 kmph) oment a force that tends to cause rotation because the object is fixed in position at one point or because the force is not applied at the centre of gravity monoplane aeroplane with one set of wings nacelle outer casing of an aeroplane’s engine orbit path of one body around another body under the influence of gravity payload weight being carried pitch angle that a propeller or rotor blade makes with the air passing over it pressurisation increasing the air pressure in an aircraft cabin as altitude increases and the air pressure outside is too low for breathing radar radio distance and ranging – an instrument to allow light when ther e is no visibility retrofit to incorporate new parts and changes into old models riveting a method for joining solid sheet materials to a firm support rotors the rotating blades on a helicopter that act as propeller and wing rudder broad flat wooden or metal piece hinged to the rear of an aeroplane for steering satellite a body revolving in some fixed path around another body shot xvi body of aeroplane Consists of small pellets; in shot-peening these are ‘fired’ onto a surface spar a stout pole such as those used for masts or booms etc on a boat. Also the main member of the wing frame in an aeroplane stall hen an aircraft loses lift, usually due to loss of relative air speed, and is in danger of falling streamlined made to a shape calculated to cause the least resistance to motion supercharger a device to force air into an aeroplane engine with pressure to overcome the reduction in atmospheric pressure at high altitudes and so maintain engine power as the aircraft climb s triplane an aeroplane with three sets of wings arranged one above the other wind tunnel a box or tube designed to drive a moving stream of air around an object or a scaled model of the object within it to determine the behaviour of the object in an airstream aw the motion of an aircraft about it's vertical axis xvii xviii Directive terms The list below explains key words you will encounter in assessment tasks and examination questions. account account for: state reasons for, report on; give an account of: narrate a series of events or transactions analyse identify components and the relationship between them, draw out and relate implications apply use, utilise, employ in a particular situation appreciate make a judgement about the value of assess make a judgement of value, quality, outcomes, results or size calculate ascertain/determine from given facts, figures or information larify make clear or plain classify arrange or include in classes/categories compare show how things are similar or different construct make, build, put together items or arguments contrast show how things are different or opposite critically (analyse/evaluate) add a degree or level of accuracy, depth, knowledge and understanding, logic, questioning, reflection and quality to (analysis/evaluation) deduce draw conclusions define state meaning and identify essential qualities demonstrate show by example xix describe provide characteristics and features discuss identify issues and provide points for and/or against distinguish ecognise or note/indicate as being distinct or different from; to note differences between evaluate make a judgement based on criteria; determine the value of examine inquire into explain relate cause and effect; make the relationships between things evident; provide why and/or how extract choose relevant and/or appropriate details extrapolate infer from what is known identify recognise and name interpret draw meaning from investigate plan, inquire into and draw conc lusions about justify support an argument or conclusion outline sketch in general terms; indicate the main features of predict suggest what may happen based on available nformation propose put forward (for example a point of view, idea, argument, suggestion) for consideration or action recall present remembered ideas, facts or experiences recommend provide reasons in favour recount retell a series of events summarise express, concisely, the relevant details synthesise putting together various elements to make a whole Extract from The New Higher School Certificate Assessment Support Document,  © Board of Studies, NSW, 1999. Refer to for original and current documents. xx Aeronautical engineering Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope of the profession & engineering reportPart 1 contents Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 2 What will you learn?†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 2 Scope of aeronautical engineering†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 3 Unique technologies in aeronautical engineering †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 10 Current projects or innovations†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 26 Health and safety issues †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 31 Training for the profession†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 5 Careers in aeronautical engineering†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 37 Relations with the community †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 40 Legal and ethical issues†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 45 Engineers as managers †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 46 The engineering report †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 49 Structure of a focus engineering report †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 49 Sample engineering report †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â ‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 51Exercise sheet †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 61 Progress check †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 63 Exercise cover sheet†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ 65 Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 1 Arial Arial bold Introduction The purpose of this part is to introduce you to the scope and nature of the aeronautical engineering profession. What will you learn? You will learn about: †¢ the nature and scope of the aeronautical engineering profession †¢ current projects and innova tions health and safety issues †¢ training for the profession †¢ career prospects †¢ unique technologies in the profession †¢ legal and ethical implications †¢ engineers as managers †¢ relations with the community. You will learn to: †¢ define the responsibilities of the aeronautical engineer †¢ describe the nature of work done in this profession †¢ examine projects and innovations from within the aeronautical profession †¢ analyse the training and career prospects within aeronautical engineering. Extract from Stage 6 Engineering Studies Syllabus,  © Board of Studies, NSW, 1999. Refer to for original and current documents. 2Aeronautical engineering Scope  of  aeronautical  engineering Today, you would pay little attention to the sound of an over-flying aircraft, that is, if you noticed it at all. Yet less than ninety years ago everyone around you would have looked skyward and wondered in awe at the sight. The aircraft of 90 y ears ago was not the sophisticated unit that you may see in the sky today. They were a combination of timber, wire, fabric and a crude engine or two, flown on a ‘wing and a prayer’. The designers of these aircraft were not aeronautical engineers as such. More often than not they were scientists or enthusiastic amateurs.The little knowledge they did possess was the collected result of a variety of experiments with kites and models conducted during the late 1800s and early 1900s. Often the over enthusiastic and over confident experimenters piloted their less than airworthy designs to an early grave. Could this have been a form of natural selection? Many early workers used the empirical data collected from these many failures and a few successes to develop the first working aircraft. This was not always done with reference to pure theory and equations. Basically the cambered wing at a suitable angle of attack appeared to give good lift.Consequently many aircraft experiment ers chose to concentrate on the cambered wing and other ideas that ‘seemed to be a good idea at the time’. However, scientists such as Dr Lancaster had developed and confirmed mathematical theories for phenomena such as lift generation and induced drag well before the Wright Brothers first flew an aircraft. Today’s aeronautical engineers still use models. The test pilot still has to be the first person to pilot the aircraft. However, the Concord and the FA 18 Hornet, could not be designed without extensive reference to aeronautical theory and use of sophisticated calculation.The test pilot will have already flown many hours in a flight simulator which emulates the predicted in-flight characteristics of the new aircraft. This then is the domain of the aeronautical engineer. Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 3 Arial Arial bold List the general areas of knowledge that you think a team of aeronautical engineers would need to posse ss to design and build a complete aircraft. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Did you answer? †¢ aerodynamics †¢ electrical and electronic systems †¢ materials technology †¢ hydraulics †¢ fuel engines and propulsion systems †¢ structural mechanics †¢ drawing and drafting skills. Before venturing further into the day to day complexities of being an aeronautical engineer you should take a step back to consider the aircraft as an engineered system. Aerodynamics An aircraft is not just a wing with a powerful jet engine strapped to it. Moreover it is the product of a combined effort by hundreds of individual designers and engineers working toward a common goal.As aircraft grow more sophisticated no one person can fully understand every detail that goes int o an aircraft’s design. An aircraft before all other considerations is an aerodynamic entity. It is held aloft by the lift forces generated by the camber and angle of attack of the wing. It is restrained by drag forces created by form and shape of the aircraft and induced through the process of generating lift. The everpresent pull of gravity will eventually pull all aircraft back to earth. The movement of air around an aircraft is a complex thing to understand and at times it is difficult to predict.Aerodynamic theory helps predict the movement of air and the amount of lift generated but it is only a starting point. 4 Aeronautical engineering Aerodynamics is a major concern of aeronautical engineers but there are other equally important aspects to the profession. Reel tricky You will need: †¢ a thumb tack or pin from the sewing cabinet †¢ a small sheet of thin cardboard †¢ a drawing compass and a pair of scissors. †¢ a cotton reel from the same place that you found the pin. Carry out the following steps: 1 draw an 80 mm diameter circle on the cardboard, then cut out the circle using the scissors 2 ush the thumb tack or pin through the center of the cardboard disc so that the pointy end goes through as far as it can go 3 pick up the cotton reel, place the pointy end of the tack or pin into the hole on the bottom side of the cotton reel and hold the disk in place with your finger 4 blow through the top of the cotton reel and let go of the disk while you are still blowing. Blow Cotton reel Pin Cardboard disk Figure 1. 1 The disk on the cotton reel trick Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 5 Arial Arial bold The disk should have remained in position until you stopped blowing.When you stopped blowing the disk should have fallen down. Explain why the disk behaved the way it did. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ _________ _________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ Did you answer? Air moving over the disk had velocity and therefore a dynamic pressure component. Benoulli’s predictions on total pressure would indicate that the static pressure above the disk in the moving air would therefore be lower than the pressure below the disk in still air, therefore the disk experiences ‘lift’. (The disk is pushed upwards by the higher pressure beneath it. ) 6 Aeronautical engineering Propulsion systems An aircraft requires a propulsion system to provide thrust (or in the case of a g lider, a launching system to get it into the air in the first place).An engineer will have to decide the best combination of engine and thrust device to attach to an aircraft. Identify engine types and thrust devices that are used on new or old aircraft. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Did you answer? Some of the engine types and thrust devices you may have identified include; internal combustion engine, jet engine, turbine, radial, propeller, fan, rotor and rocket.You will hear more of propulsion systems in the mechanics and hydraulics part of this module. Stress-n-Strain Aeronautical engineers who design superbly aerodynamic aircraft that crash and burn because the wings fall off will not lead a successful career. The aeronautical engineer has to calculate and consider the forces present in all components of the aircraft. They then have to predict whether the material that the components are manufactured from will sustain that load without failure. This prediction must be for the full service life of the aircraft.If a component is predicted to fail within the service life of the aircraft, the engineer will mandate when that component must be periodically replaced. The piston engines in light aircraft usually have a minor service after 100 hours operating time and a major service every 1000 hours operating time. A major service will involve a full strip-down of the engine. Many components, for example pistons, must be replaced whether or not they appear to be in serviceable condition. Other components will be subjected to testing. Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 7 Arial Arial boldMaterials Linked to considerations of structural forces are the consideration and selection of appropriate materials. An aeronautical engineer will need to have a good knowledge of the manufacturing and service properties of the materials used on aircraft. An aircraft operates in a harsh environment. During any flight an aircraft is subjected to constant vibration, to stresses due to turbulence, to cyclic pressurisation and depressurisation of the cabin, to moisture and to wide fluctuations of temperature. The temperature on the ground may be 36? C while at 38 000 feet it may be –60 °C.Materials selected must first be readily formed in the shapes required and must secondly be suited to the service conditions. Predict or identify any materials based problems that might occur due to the harsh environment that the aircraft is subject to. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Did you answer? †¢ brittleness at low tempe rature †¢ fatigue due to repeated cycles of stress crack propagation under high stresses, vibration, temperature changes †¢ corrosion due to continuous exposure to the elements †¢ failure under impact †¢ loss of strength at high temperature. Avionics and electrical Modern aircraft depend on many electronic systems to safely complete their flights. The flight deck instruments, navigation systems, the actuation of aerodynamic surfaces, the landing and autopilot systems are now controlled by electronics and micro-processor systems. The design and implementation of avionics is the realm of another engineer, the electrical or electronic engineer.The aeronautical engineer must however be aware of the impact of these systems when designing an aircraft. 8 Aeronautical engineering Control systems and hydraulics The control surfaces of aircraft; elevators, ailerons, rudders and flaps need to move in response to pilot inputs on the control column and rudder pedals. In light aircraft this is achieved using wires and rods. In large commercial jets this is done with hydraulic systems connected to electronic or hydraulic controllers. Cowl Cockpit/cabin Spinner Prop Wing tip Aileron Flaps Fuselage Tailplane Elevator Trim tab Fin and rudder Figure 1. Main parts on an aeroplane If you have access to the Internet visit this Sydney University web site is an excellent source for additional aeronautics information (accessed 30. 10. 01). Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 9 Arial Arial bold Unique technologies in aeronautical engineering Many of the technologies found in the aeronautical engineering profession are not unique in the sense that they are solely found and used in this discipline. The technologies used by the aeronautics industry are also found in industries that deal with similar problems and issues.For instance, if you were to design a high technology, 18 foot racing skiff, you would need to consider and use many of the technologies available in the aeronautics industry, excluding perhaps the requirement for the vessel to fly. Can you identify any technologies that you believe overlap between aeronautics and boat-building industries? Consider the major areas of emphasis in this course; history, materials, mechanics and communication. List the technologies that you believe overlap between the aircraft industry and the construction of high tech boats. __________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Did you answer? †¢ materials – such as graphite and kevlar and aluminium alloys †¢ computerised design and drawing systems †¢ wind tunnel testing of airframes and sails †¢ computerised calculation systems. Aircraft design Aircraft design is primarily concerned with flight and how to achiev e this condition safely and efficiently. Basically an aircraft must be aerodynamically sound – have lots of lift and minimal drag.The aircraft must also be as light as possible to maximize its payload and to allow it to get off the ground in the first place. The materials must be suited to the operating conditions and the environment and remain in good condition for the expected service life of the aircraft. 10 Aeronautical engineering The aircraft must also be structurally sound. The stresses in the components must not exceed the component's safe working limits. Nothing ruins a pilot’s day more than having the wings fold up in a tight turn! Finally, aircraft components are often sourced from manufacturers from all over the world.To ensure that it all goes together when all the parts arrive, very accurate and detailed drawings are required by each component manufacturer. These have to be drawn to internationally accepted standards. So, you ask, what has all this got to do with weekend sailors and flimsy boats? Skiff design A sailing skiff, aside from any other considerations, must use wind and air to drive it. A close inspection of a sail in operation will reveal that the sail is in fact a curved aerofoil not a flat sheet of sailcloth. You would notice this particularly on the sail of a windsurfer.The sail develops lift just as does the wing of an aircraft. The hull of the skiff moves through a fluid that you refer to as water. A badly designed hull generates a large amount of drag that slows the skiff down. The skipper usually comments loudly about this situation as better-designed skiffs race past on their way to the finish line. Many designers of modern racing skiffs use sophisticated fluid dynamics software to assist in designing both hull and sails. Similarly, these same designers are concerned with the two competing virtues of low weight and structural strength.In Auckland, in 1995, the America’s cup challenger ‘One Australiaâ €™ broke into two reasonably large but none-the-less rapidly sinking pieces. This was a perfect example of poor strength to weight analysis. Put simply, the structural forces imposed on the hull exceeded the strength of the hull material. The designer sacrificed strength to obtain a lighter hull and paid the price. The strength and modulus of light weight materials such as marine and aircraft grade aluminium, carbon fibre composites and Kevlar are compared to complex mechanical analyses of the hull, spar and sail design. Again software solutions exist and are utilized.The skiff’s final drawings and component shapes may be drawn by hand. Often the drawings are produced using common, off the shelf CAD programs or perhaps specialist lofting software designed for the marine industry. Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 11 Arial Arial bold As you can see, the technologies in two seemingly unrelated industries are similar in nature and do over lap. However, the aeronautical engineering profession is distinct in some very significant ways: †¢ The scale of operations and the shear complexity of the calculations involved in aeronautical engineering are infinitely greater. †¢The aircraft industry uses and often develops leading edge technology. Leading edge technology is usually very expensive. Industries such as the manufacturers of small boats tend to acquire this technology when it is more established and the cost of the new technology is more affordable. More about aeronautical engineering technologies You will now learn more about some of the leading edge technologies associated with the aircraft industry. The technologies tend to fall into two broad areas; those technologies used to design the aircraft, and those technologies associated with the materials manufacturing aspects of aircraft.Aircraft design technologies Throughout this course you have been involved in calculating forces, reactions, moments and st ress in two dimensions and only on flat or uniform surfaces. At times you may have considered the calculations a little difficult. Consider then the degree of difficulty that would be involved if you now had to calculate forces and moments in three dimensions, on curved surfaces with loads that fluctuated and using calculus that Extension 2 (4 Unit) mathematics does not cover. Does this conjure up an image in your mind?Now imagine applying similarly difficult calculations to more than a thousand points across a single wing. Are you now thinking that this is getting a little difficult? A modern jet aircraft may contain over a million individual components and someone has to draw each and every one of them. Again, just to make things difficult virtually every component is curved in some special and very critical way. Imagine the most difficult drawing that you have done so far in this course, then multiply the degree of difficulty by ten. Then repeat the drawing several thousand times . Starting to get the picture yet! 12Aeronautical engineering List some systems and products that exist to reduce the difficulty and complexity of designing modern jet aircraft. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Did you answer? One of the most significant is computerised design and calculation software. Others include ‘off the shelf’ systems for navigation, communication and cockpit management. The bad newsAll aeronautical engineers have to learn and understand how to do these difficult calculations. They have to use their brain, some mathematics and a calculator. Aspiring aeronautical engineers soon encounter the complexities of computational analysis (difficult mathematics). They will see a lot more calculation before their aeronautical engineering course finally ends. The good news There are software tools available to assist the engineer in the design process. To use these software tools effectively and correctly the engineer must first understand the underlying mathematics and theory on which these programs are based.That is, you must be able to understand and do the mathematics before using the program. You will now examine four common categories of aircraft design software: †¢ structural analysis software †¢ modeling software †¢ aerodynamic calculation software †¢ CAD software. Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 13 Arial Arial bold Structural analysis software The structural analysis of an aircraft is a complex problem. There are not many straight lines involved, virtually every component is curved, even the ones that look straight are usually curved. The loading is not uniform, it varies from point to point.In other words, the l oads and stresses will vary infinitely across the components being analysed. An infinite number of equations could take quite some time. The solution is really quite straight-forward. If an engineer intends to examine the forces, stresses and moments in an aircraft wing, the wing can be mathematically broken up into a large number of sections referred to as elements. The conditions in each element are then examined. The results from each element are combined together to produce a distribution of forces, stresses and moments across the wing. The number of elements considered in this procedure is finite.There is an upper limit to the number of elements to be analysed. This mathematical process is called ‘finite element analysis’. The industry abbreviates this to FEA. Finite element analysis is a very powerful tool but is very slow when done by hand. A very popular finite element software (FEA) package in the aircraft industry is called NASTRAN. This package falls into the category of a computer aided engineering software (CAE) tool. NASTRAN is a high end software tool for critical engineering applications. It is capable of stress, vibration, heat transfer, acoustic and aeroelastic analysis. If you have access to the Internet visit .Select the appropriate option from the software section of the directory to find out more about NASTRAN (accessed 06. 11. 01). Modeling software The production and testing of physical working models is a costly and time consuming activity. An activity that is closely related to finite element analysis is ‘finite element modeling’. In the aeronautical engineering industry ‘finite element modeling’ is abbreviated to FEM. Using finite element modeling software, an engineer can construct models using computer aided design (CAD) parts, submit the models for simulation and observe the behavior of the model under simulation.The results can be used to modify and improve the product designs to yield bette r performance and to better resist loads. A high end finite element modeling program that is commonly used in the aeronautical engineering industry is PATRAN. This product is 14 Aeronautical engineering produced by MSC, the same company that produces the analysis package NASTRAN. Figure 1. 3 was produced by the Page Aircraft Company Pty Ltd using the finite element modeling package PATRAN. This company is associated with the University of NSW and is currently developing a light aircraft that it hopes to put into full commercial production.You can find out more about PATRAN at . Figure 1. 3 A PATRAN generated image of an aircraft under development  © Reproduced with the permission of the Page Aircraft Company Pty Ltd Aerodynamic calculation and modeling software Aerodynamics is concerned primarily with the flow of air and the interaction of that air with objects that it encounters. Aeronautical engineers are usually concerned with the interaction of an aircraft’s outer surfa ces with the air through which the aircraft moves. ‘CFD' calculations can help to predict the lift and drag levels for a particular airframe as well as stall and other performance characteristics.Air is considered to be a fluid and the mathematical processes involved in predicting the behaviour of the air is called computational fluid Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 15 Arial Arial bold dynamics or CFD for short. The mathematics involved is complex but again there is software available which can carry out these calculations. Outline a practical way in which an aeronautical engineer could visualize the flow of air around an aircraft without using software. __________________________________________________________ _________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Did you answer? The flow of air around an aircraft can be observed using a wind tunnel where wind is pushed over a model with smoke streams passing over it. An industry standard software package commonly used by aeronautical engineers is VSAERO. This package allows an engineer to input the surface geometry of an aircraft. The surface geometry is simply the outside shape of the aircraft.The engineer can also input reference conditions such as velocity of the air, angle of attack of the wing and yaw. The package will then calculate and display the predicted behaviour of the air around the aircraft. If you have access to the Internet visit . Under products there is a graphic showing an image of the C-130, the Hercules transport aircraft used by the Australian military at present. Take a close look at what is happening to the wingtips (accessed 30. 10. 01). If you have access to the Internet visit to view a photograph of a real C-130 activating anti missile flares (accessed 30. 10. 1). Computer aided design The last type of software packag e that you need to learn about are the computer aided design (CAD) drawing packages. You’re probably familiar with one of the CAD packages available for use on personal computers. These include Autocad Light, Autosketch and TurboCAD. These packages vary in power and are fine for standard drawing applications such as architecture and medium scale manufacturing. The aeronautics industry uses specialist CAD packages which fit the industry’s need to produce drawings of complex surface shapes and 16 Aeronautical engineering curved components.They also use state of the art, multiple processor workstations with large screen monitors for speed and ease of viewing. The large monitors reduce eye-strain and allow more of each drawing to be displayed. CAD software packages currently used by many aeronautical engineering companies include CATIA and CADDS 5. The CATIA package is promoted as CAD/CAM/CAE package. CATIA can be used solely for drawing and designing. However, it can also be used for CAM (computer aided manufacturing) and CAE applications. If you have Internet access visit to find out more about CATIA (accessed 30. 10. 1). Figure 1. 4 Image produced by the Page Aircraft Company Pty Ltd using CATIA software. The aircraft shown is currently under development  © Reproduced with the permission of the Page Aircraft Company Pty Ltd Wind tunnels To this point all the development tools have been based on computer software. In the aerodynamic calculation and modeling section you were asked to suggest a method of assessing the aerodynamic behaviour of an aircraft without using computers. Many successful aircraft have been developed without the aid of modern computers. In fact the computer models are not perfect.The information provided by computer analysis is usually valid but does not exactly predict the behaviour of a real aircraft. Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 17 Arial Arial bold Why do you think this is so? ____ ______________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ Did you answer? Computer output is based on computational methods that have been programmed into the computer.These computational methods are based on theoretical analyses of conditions. Variables are input to reflect real situations and conditions as much as possible but can never predict the precise conditions that exist. Input into a computer is based on precise or perfect data, the behaviour of materials, fluids and the like is not necessarily perfect. The output from a computer program is based purely on the input. Another method of assessing an aircraft design is to construct a very accurate scale model then subject the model to wind tunnel testing.Wind tunnel testing does not exactly predict the behaviour of a real, fullsize aircraft flying in open air. However, when scale effect corrections are applied valid data can be obtained. Model boats on ponds do not behave like real ships, the forces and accelerations are all out of proportion. They bounce around like corks. Similarly model aircraft in wind tunnels do not behave like real aircraft. There are several reasons for this. It is difficult to make accurate models. The sides of the wind tunnel constrain the air-flow. Most seriously, the model is flown in full size air not ‘model size’ air.This is known as the scale effect. Larger size models in larger size wind tunnels give the most meaningful data. The most sophisticated wind tunnels actually compress the air at up to 25 atmospheres to correct for scale effect. Most aircraft design is based on both CFD and wind tunnel analysis. This is because neither system gives perfect results. The following photograph shows a model under test in a wind tunnel at the University of NSW. 18 Aeronautical engineering Figure 1. 5 A model aircraft being tested in a wind tunnel  © Reproduced with the permission of the Page Aircraft Company Pty LtdManufacturing technologies and systems unique to the aeronautics industry Aeronautical engineers also deal with materials and manufacturing processes that are highly specialized in their nature and could be considered unique. The materials used for aircraft manufacture need to possess very special manufacturing and service properties. List five properties which you believe are important for materials used in aircraft manufacture and construction. Give your reasons for each choice. Property Reason why it is important Part 1: Aeronautical engineering – scope and engineering report 19 Arial Arial bold Did you answer?Property Reason why it is important Low fatigue aircraft vibration can cause fatigue failures High strength to weight lower the overall weight Corrosion resistance resist harsh operating conditions Ductility (before forming) Provide for forming of c omplex shapes Elasticity allow the aircraft to flex Later, in the materials section of this module you will investigate the materials commonly used in the aircraft manufacturing industry. This section is more concerned with the technologies used when dealing with these materials. Advanced composite materials Two commonly used materials are aluminium and carbon fibre

Principles of Economics.Monetary Policy and the Federal Reserve Essay

Investment and consumption decreased during the 2007 and 2009 recession. Government expenditure can increase Aggregate demand because it increases liquidity in the market. The government may operate below full employment when job seekers are more than available job hence end up accepting low wages. The multiplier can have a negative effect when people lose jobs as a result of government cut spending. This causes initial decrease in national income. The relationship between marginal propensities and multiplier is that an increase in MPC leads to an increase in multiplier. Similarly, increase in MPS causes a decrease in the multiplier (Farmer, 2008). 2. Fiscal Policy                9/11 attack led to decrease in aggregate demand, in United States. An example of a sector that was hit hard is entertainment and travel sectors. It also led to decrease in personal consumption. The attack caused an increase in equilibrium price levels. This is because there is an inverse relationship between Aggregate demand and equilibrium price levels.An Expansionary fiscal policy and Contractionary fiscal policy is used to increase aggregate demand. Expansionary fiscal policy is a policy used during the recession to increase AD by increasing government spending or decreasing taxes. Contractionary fiscal policy is used during inflation in order to decrease AD by decreasing government spending or increasing taxes (Farmer, 2008). After September 11’s attack, the government increased expenditure in different sectors such as national defense. 3. Money and Banking                Factors that led to the mortgage default crisis is much borrowings and flawed financial modeling majorly based on an assumption that prices of homes only go up, greed and fraud. Mortgage defaults affected lending banks in that their loans were not repaid leading to huge losses. In many cases, they got real estate that was valued far below what mortgage was when borrowers had a note. Default of bonds income backed by mortgage loans was interrupted banks were left with unwanted real estate (Friedman, 2010). Securitization is pooling different types of contractual debt. TARP is a program formed by the government of US to buy assets and equity from institutions that offer financial services in order to strengthen the financial sector. TARP opened a window of opportunity for banks to pay their own debt and acquire other businesses instead of lend money to private sectors. The Federal Reserve injected funds into the credit markets in order to help them lend again. It also reduced the target federal funds rate. Major provisions in the Wall Street Reform and Consumer Protection Act include Office of Insurance which creates Federal Insurance Office that monitors aspects of the insurance industry and Consumer Protections that creates Consumer Financial Protection Agency which protects Americans from unfair financial products and services. 4. Monetary Policy and the Federal Reserve                The Federal Reserve System refers to the central banking system of United States. Fed was launched in response to a series of financial panics. Federal Reserve Bank of Atlanta covers the states of Alabama, Georgia and Florida, 74 counties in Tennessee, 38 parishes of Louisiana, and 43 counties of Mississippi. William H. Rogers, Jr is the current Chairman of this Fed. This fed should remain politically independent because its rate is determined by market and is not explicitly determined by the Fed. The target for federal funds is adjusted by 0.25% or 0.50% at any given time. Fed give liquidity to banks to enable them gives credit in times of recession. Federal Open Market Committee is a committee in Federal Reserve System that is charged with the responsibility of overseeing the country’s open market operations. Fed should decrease their rates to help spur the economy of US. This is expansionary monetary policy (Axilrod, 2011). 5. Free Trade                I support free trade and the NAFTA. They are based on comparative advantage. Countries produce what they can export cheaply. US exports goods like corn and meat to Mexico. Some of goods imported into USA include snacks and processed fruits. However, despite the having the benefit of increasing growth and collaboration between countries, free trade has the cost of dumping goods into the country and destroying infant industries. Free trade should be restricted on some goods like natural resources. 6. Foreign Exchange                US dollar is currently losing value against the euro. This is because the European Union is finding solution to Euro crisis. Dollars are supplied by the Central Bank of USA. A dollar loses value when its demand goes down. For example, whenever US citizens buy products from Germany, the demand for Euro goes up against the Dollar. A falling US Dollar increases ones travel expenses. This is because has to use more dollars to buy a foreign currencies which are expensive. However, a cheap dollar is bad for the US economy because it discourages exportation. A free floating exchange rate refers to a monetary system whose exchange rates are free to move due to forces of the market without intervention by the government (Friedman, 2010). References Axilrod, S. H. (2011). Inside the Fed monetary policy and its management, Martin through Greenspan to Bernanke (Rev. ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. APA formatting by BibMe.org. Farmer, R. E. (2008). Aggregate demand and supply. Cambridge, Mass.: National Bureau of Economic Research. Friedman, M., & Heller, W. W. (2010). Monetary vs. fiscal policy. New York: Norton. Starr, R. M. (2011). General equilibrium theory: an introduction (2nd ed.). New York: Cambridge University Press. Source document

Coaching and Leadership in the Workplace Essay

According to Mike Noble in his article, Transform Managers into Coaches: Five Steps for Coaching Success, an effective manager is a coach and not just a boss. The most effective managers are those who can coach and collaborate. If one is able to coach their employees effectively then they are able to create sustainable long-term results for themselves and their company. Coaching is action of helping others to perform better, whether it is through feedback, demonstrations, or teaching. It is investing in the people within a company and shaping them into better employees so that they can not only perform their tasks better, but also better qualify for promotions. Mike Noble’s article breaks down the five steps necessary for successfully becoming a coaching leader and the benefits of becoming one. By coaching your employees, you become a transformational leader who enhances as well as generates new experiences for employees, thus gaining a stronger level of commitment from them. The first step to transforming a manager into a coaching leader is to build a personal case for coaching. The manager has to want to develop their coaching skills and see the relevance of developing them. Once a manager understands that they can achieve better results through coaching instead of taking a command and control response to management, they will be willing to develop their skills as a coach. Managers are more inclined to seize the opportunity when they realize that many successful leaders and executives are coaches in their respective disciplines. Next, firm expectations need to be set regarding coaching. By clarifying the expectation that coaching is the primary responsibility of each manager, you are creating a coaching culture. If a firm or organization has a strong corporate culture of coaching, it creates a positive environment that employees want to be a part of and participate in within that firm or organization. Coaching should be a part of every manager’s job description. For the third step, one should teach coaching skills and put them into practice. Coaching does not come naturally for everyone and core-coaching skills can be taught in a variety of ways. The key to developing good coaching skills is being able to put them to use in real life situations when coachable opportunities occur. If you want a manager to transform into a good coach, there is no better way than to give them a coach of their own so they can experience things hands on. The fourth step in the transformation process is to be assigned a coach. By assigning them a coach, it enables a manager not only to experience the benefits of coaching but provides an effective model for coaching others. The final step to developing a coaching manager is to reward the best coaches with the best jobs. Those with the strongest coaching skills are potentially the strongest performers and therefore the best candidates for important manager and executive roles in an organization. The benefits of becoming a coaching manager are career advancement and overall benefits to the organization with strengthened skills in their employees. Right now, I have an authoritative style of leadership, but I strongly want to develop my coaching skills and modify my behavior. My store manager is a strong coaching manager who I admire greatly and she is my coach from whom I learn all my lessons. I have all the habits of a strong ethical leader in that I have strong personal character and a passion to do what is right. I always try to consider the interest of the stakeholders, be proactive, and model the values of my company. All of these qualities make me a good manager, but I do not just want to be good, I want to be the best. If I am to be the best, I have to develop the strongest team and I can only do by coaching them to be better. Right now, I am just an assistant restaurant manager with McDonalds, but I intend to move up and desire nothing more than to move through the ranks quickly. McDonald’s focuses its training on coaching and improving performance, so that is why I find this article so relevant to leadership styles. You can coach someone to make decisions that are more ethical and do the right thing. If developing a coaching leadership style means I will build a stronger team at my restaurant, then that is what I want to do. I want to be able to share my strong ethical culture with others and the best way for me to do that is to coach them. I want to foster long-term success among my people and create a positive climate where people want to work. As of right now, I have gone through four of the five steps in developing myself as a coaching manager. I have identified my personal case for coaching and I know what is in it for me. I want to move up and that is my motivating factor. My store manager at work has set firm expectations for me in becoming a coaching manager. She has set goals for me and I am working on achieving them. At work, I bring the skills I am developing onto the floor and implement them into situations as they occur. I learn new things daily from my coach, my store manager Jessica, and I try to share those things with the people I am coaching. At this point in my career, I can only hope that the things I am learning and bringing onto the floor are effective and I will soon see myself reap the reward of becoming a first assistant manager at work and one day becoming a store manager.

Should local and state police have the authority to check on Research Paper - 1

Should local and state police have the authority to check on immigration status - Research Paper Example he ability of the terrorists to manipulate the weak points of immigration laws was not surprising, as enforcing these laws has proved to be an uphill task. It is suggested that the number of illegal aliens living in the United States is close to 7-10 million with a handful of 2000 enforcement agents to deal with them. This hence increased the urgency of reform in the immigration system (Kobach 179 Â ´). On reading the letter sent to him by the United States attorney general suggesting the involvement of the local police in enforcing the federal immigration law, Mayor Peterson was of the contrary opinion. On his reply to the attorney general, Mayor Peterson indicated that the local police were not the right personnel equipped for this task. He went on to elaborate that local police lacked the necessary expertise and training that is crucial in ascertaining on whom is illegally in the country. In addition to this, by placing the responsibility of enforcing the immigration laws on the local police, United States will be diverting these law enforcement agents from their neighborhood responsibilities that have existed since time in memorial. The hard-earned trust that existed between the new residents and the police could be jeopardized thanks to the new responsibilities regarding enforcement of immigration laws. In addition to this, the long founded legacy that existed in the city of service delivery to all despite ones immigration status could be destroyed. This legacy was viewed as the key to promoting public safety as discrimination is avoided (Indianapolis Monthly 2006, 225). D’Appollonia and Reich also indicate that by delegating the immigration status alone cannot amount to involvement of the local and state police in immigration enforcement. They go on to indicate that this is tantamount to transformation of the state police to personal destruction. The delegation of responsibilities regarding immigration enforcement to the local police by the federal

You are wiith torture or no Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

You are wiith torture or no - Essay Example In my opinion, torture should not be used for any purposes in humans (Arar 1). Pro-torture arguments believe in giving intelligent agencies extended powers for torturing people in order to obtain information. In addition, they argue that torture can be used to compel individuals to do various tasks required by agencies, organizations and governments (Arar 1). In this case, torture can be used through enhanced interrogation techniques such as sleep deprivation and water boarding. Proponents of torture also argue based on idealism. In this case, torture is justified because of its capabilities to help in saving lives in exceptional conditions. In this case, torture is used to obtain information from terrorists and people suspected of illegal activities. Therefore, inflicting pain is an effective way of preserving order and securing the safety of people (Arar 1). As an individual opposing torture, it is worth stating that the process is inhuman and unethical. This is because torture inflicts pain and disrupts the psychological state of the individual. In addition, torture inflicts moral damage on the society because of the state and severity of the psychological and physical torture (Arar 1). In addition, torture cannot be used as an instrument for fighting terrorism of obtaining information because it is an instrument of

BUSN300 Unit 5 IP Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

BUSN300 Unit 5 IP - Research Paper Example It has factories that spread over six continents  dealing  with the production of automobiles Toyota Business Environment Every organization, regardless of the business they are doing, is exposed to a lot of factors that has an effect on the performance of a company and also the strategies and decision making of an organization. It is therefore important for companies to be informed about these factors since they can have an influence on the plans and strategies of a company Challenges faced by Toyota Motor Corporation Toyota Motor Corporation being an international company faces a lot of legal and business challenges that have affected the strategies, plans and decisions of the organization and also the entire automobile industry. Some of the challenges include: The products of Toyota company are found everywhere in the world and the company supplies its automobiles to various countries globally. Competition is none of the greatest challenge the company has to deal with since th e company is operating in a competitive environment. Factors like the features and quality of the product, research and development time, safety, reliability, pricing, customer service, pricing terms and fuel economy. The company has been offering world class products which have made it to be a leader in the market and its products are facing steep competition. Nevertheless, the company has been leading on the market which led to the company being awarded as the number one company in sales of automobiles. The company was affected by the economic crisis that was experienced in 2008 in the US. Since the company is the leading manufacturer of the automobile, its turnover of over $17 billion was shaken due to this economic downturn. This was attributed to the fall of consumer spending that affected many households. The company was able to survive the economic turmoil since it had other services like biotechnology and other financial services. Furthermore, the company had to let off some temporary workers and also had to reduce car production of automobiles Toyota Company had to recall over 14 million Lexus and CamrySolara models of vehicles which had an acceleration problem. This problem was traced to the vehicle accelerating itself while driving at a low speed. This has increased the number of accidents that have been experienced all over the world. The company was forced to respond to questions that were asked by the customers about the quality of the products. Despite the challenges faced by the company, the management of the company has focused their attention on solving problems and service delivery to the customers. The company had to use the SWOT analysis so as to understand the business Strengths The company has a global production plant in six continents. The company has the capacity to produce the best services as compared to other competitors. The greatest strength of the company is the manufacturing of quality products to the customers. Though some peo ple  are  not be in a position to buy the automobiles of the company, the company still has a growth in its sale due to the production of quality and reliable products. This allows the company to serve both private and commercial organizations therefore dominating in all sectors f the market Weaknesses The company is only focusing on big economies and forgets emerging economies. Opportunities Presence of new technology has facilitated the company in producing Eco-friendly automobiles. The

Mali Economic Development Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Mali Economic Development - Research Proposal Example In 2005, Mali returned to a robust and good growth rate of 5.5 % after being characterized by a poor 2.2 % in its previous year. Cotton production in Mali involves around 3.3 million people and close to 200000 families farms hence accounting for about 10 percent of the Malian GDP. When compared to 2004, cotton production in 2005 improved greatly due to well distributed and adequate rainfall. Since the Mali government acknowledges the importance and significance of the cotton sector, it has organized it in an integrated format managed by the Compagnie Malienne pour le DÃ ©veloppement du Textile. CMDT is tasked with regualtiong and managing the whole chain of cotton production. Additionally, it is mandated with the development of rural areas via the provision of the necessary infrastructure such as a road network some areas like Segou, Kayes and Koulikoro. In general, Mali’s agricultural sector is characterized by low productivity due to lack of a specialized labor force. In light of this, it is clear that human capital has a significant impact on a country’s economic development. Human capital is often made up of education and health of the people. A human welfare index which incorporates education shows that Mali has a very low rate of school enrollment rates when compared to the rest of sub Saharan Africa. As such, Mali’s economic development over the years lags behind in comparison to most sub Saharan states. Thus, Mali’s failure to possess enough human capital is a challenge and hinders its economic development.

Landmarks in Music Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Landmarks in Music - Essay Example Music is an expressive type of art form, which can be used to express our emotions, talents and our imagination. Music has evolved over time to its current modern day renditions, but if we are to select the most important pieces, to place in a time capsule, then I would have to select music from the baroque and classical periods. Music from Baroque and Classic periods forms a basis in a critical part of our history when we began to view music in a different light. During these periods, music became more of an art form, than just passive entertainment. Here are the 6 most important songs from the both periods and why they qualify to be put in the time capsule. Baroque music was composed with the intention of arousing the emotions of listeners. This era of music lasted for 150 years, between the years 1600-1750 (Schulenbert, 2001). This stage of musical development saw the emergence of non-religious vocal music, orchestral music and operas. Composers from this period, often faced many financial challenges, and most of them could only earn a living from music if they were under the patronage of a religious institution or a political figure. This patronage would then dictate the content of their compositions, but none the less composers were still able to come up with very memorable and time honored compositions. Baroque period compositions can be broken down into two distinct groups: vocal (opera, oratorio and cantata) and instrumental (sonata, concerto and suite). My pick for the most influential songs from the baroque period are: The Four Seasons: Spring url: http://www.rhapsody.com/artist/sofia-chamber-orchestra/album/antonio-vivaldi-the- four-seasons By: Antonio Vivaldi Four Seasons, as a whole, is often considered the boldest or bravest of program music from the Baroque era. Each concerto is comprised of three distinct movements; one middle movement in a slow tempo and too fast outer movements. Antonio Vivaldi wrote the sonnets, to denote the movements of the four seasons (Schulenbert, 2001). It is also has a great influence in the era as early concertos did not have a standard form, but the success of Vivaldi’s â€Å"Four Seasons† led other composers to mimic his style over time, which led a standard form used to play concertos. Of the four movements, winter is the most technically complicated and also more accurate in depicting nature like imitations of nature, the very inspiration of the sound. It is also very solid even if you break it down into several parts. Each part is creates its own dissonance that may be adapted and reinterpreted as a separate sound. Messiah: The Overture url: http://www.rh apsody.com/artist/george-frideric-handel/album/handels-messiah by: Handel This oratorio was originally intended as a thought provoking work for eastern and lent, but due to its popularity, later became a common part of Christmas festivities that has lasted over many generations. George Frederic Handel, a German born composer, was gifted in playing music from an early age. Handel’s â€Å"Messiah† employs a unique technique dubbed text painting. This technique tries to mimic the lines of the text, to the musical notes (Schulenbert, 2001). â€Å"Messiah† is broken down into three parts, which follows the meaning of the text while still maintaining its opera-like qualities. Handel’s â€Å"Messiah† helped to popularize the oratorio; a musical form that highlighted the performance of solo artists. The Overtures one of only two movements that is purely instrumental. By Handel’s time, the overture was a common, if not standard opening, of an opera a nd was actually meant to welcome the king in an opera. Handel, however, made this one considerably darker by playing it in E minor. It helped assist in the desperate need of the world for a Messiah. Six Suites for Unaccompanied Cello: Suite No. 1 url: http://www.rhapsody.com/search?query=Six+Suites+of+Unaccompanied+Cello by: Johann Sebastian Bach These suites were based on a set of instrumental compositions, which were similar

Pain Management Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Pain Management - Term Paper Example It is not acceptable for patients to be left to experience pain without proper management from medical staff in a health facility (Hall-Lord & Larsson, 2006). It is also unacceptable for nurses to lack knowledge and skills to help patients manage their painful situations. It is a professional duty for nurses to be accountable to patients with regard to pain management. There have been calls in the nursing field to include pain management as a compulsory component of pre-nursing training programs so as to ensure all nurses are fully equipped with necessary skills that will enable them to manage their patient’s painful situations. This, if implemented will result in patients receiving high standards of pain assessment and management. It will also help reduce instances of unnecessary suffering from patients. Pain assessment is the first step in pain management and treatment. The main objectives of a successful pain assessment process should be aimed at reducing the pain that the patient is experiencing, increasing the patient’s comfort, improving the patient’s physical, physiological and psychological function as well as ensuring the patient is satisfied with the pain management process. It is not easy to measure and assess pain. Nurses have to be aware of various factors that can influence how the patient feels and how he or she expresses pain. Pain assessment and measurement involves a lot of issues that have to be approached with a lot of attention. Pain assessment involves the following steps.... There have been calls in the nursing field to include pain management as a compulsory component of pre-nursing training programs so as to ensure all nurses are fully equipped with necessary skills that will enable them manage their patient’s painful situations. This, if implemented will result in patients receiving high standards of pain assessment and management. It will also help reduce instances of unnecessary suffering from patients (Hall-Lord & Larsson, 2006) Pain assessment is the first step in pain management and treatment. The main objectives of a successful pain assessment process should be aimed at reducing the pain that the patient is experiencing, increasing the patient’s comfort, improving the patient’s physical, physiological and psychological function as well as ensuring the patient is satisfied with the pain management process. It is not easy to measure and asses pain (Hall-Lord & Larsson, 2006). Nurses have to be aware of various factors that can influence how the patient feels and how he or she expresses pain. Pain assessment and measurement involves a lot of issues that have to be approached with a lot of attention. Pain assessment involves the following steps; Overall appraisal of all the factors that could influence the patient’s expression of pain Comprehensively describing pain and the effect it has on body functions of the patients Determining the barriers that may affect the nurse’s ability to asses and manage the patient’s pain, such factors include; The nurse’s lack of adequate knowledge, skills and attitudes that are needed in order to effectively manage pain Poor documentation of the patient’s pain, its assessment, management as well as pain re-evaluation The age of the patient,

Ethical Decision Reflection Essay Example for Free

Ethical Decision Reflection Essay To let go of someone you dearly love is very painful to do. The pains cause by ending relationship is very unbearable. Some people may find their world tear apart when they realize that their relationship with their partner is not going well. I have had this relationship in the past that truly marks in my heart and in my mind. I do love this person very much despite of his weaknesses and flaws but many people around us do not like the idea of being us together. At first, I try not to give ear to their comments and opinions because of my love for my partner. But in a long run, I decide to call it quits because I find out that my partner is having an affair with other man; take note, it’s a â€Å"man. † It truly hurts me a lot because he exchanges me to a man! It is a big slap my on face. That is the first factor I consider when I break up with him. He is not trustworthy and faithful. I just strongly believe that a woman is meant to be with a man and a man is meant to be with a woman. Though I live in a liberated world but I cannot just take and stand with this kind of idea that is having an affair with same sex. When I break up with him, I feel so much freedom that I never been experiencing when we are still together. I don’t know why I feel that way, but that is how I really feel. I feel like a bird being imprison in a cage for a long time and has the chance to be released. When my friends especially my parents learn about it, they are very happy and relieve. They don’t just like my partner because they can smell something fishy on him. After the break, I feel such joy in my heart and feel more beautiful inside.

Corticosteroids and Mental Disorder

Corticosteroids and Mental Disorder Abstract Corticosteroid medication is an essential treatment in almost all medical specialties. Psychiatric side effects of corticosteroids may be both common and severe and include psychosis, mania, depression, delirium and dependence. Only a small evidence base exists about susceptibility to and epidemiology of these conditions. Corticosteroid induced psychiatric disorder typically has an acute onset and is dose related. Manic symptoms predominate acutely however long term use may be associated with depression. Steroid dependence and withdrawal syndromes have been documented. Case reports suggest that a combination of mood stabilizers and antipsychotics may be useful in management severe acute effects. This article will give psychiatrists working in a general hospital a guide to the epidemiology, clinical presentation and management of corticosteroid induced psychiatric disorder. Introduction Corticosteroids were first introduced into medical practice in the late 1940s, since when they have been used by almost all medical specialists as effective treatment for autoimmune and inflammatory conditions. Over 5 million prescriptions are written for corticosteroids in the UK each year, at a cost of over  £100 million. (NHS Health Care Statistics 2005) About 1% of the general population and as many as 7% of hospitalized patients are receiving oral corticosteroid therapy at any given point in time. (NHS Health Care Statistics 2005) Whilst being renowned for important therapeutic actions they can have many adverse effects which must be considered in long term treatment. Physical effects such as osteoporosis, central obesity and immunosuppression are frequent in patients receiving corticosteroids. Psychiatric effects include alterations in mood, delirium, dementia and psychosis. As corticosteroids have a critical place in the management of chronic disease, psychiatrists should be equipped with the knowledge to recognize and manage corticosteroid induced mental disorder. This article describes the epidemiology, clinical presentation and management of these conditions. Indications and Pharmacology There are several forms of corticosteroid medication licensed in the UK, including: betamethasone, cortisone acetate, deflazacort, hydrocortisone, methylprednisolone (prednisolone) and triamcinolone. Each of these drugs has varying degrees of mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid activity. All of the above preparations exist in oral or intramuscular form. Inhaled steroid preparations are also will not be discussed as there is little evidence that they can induce mental disorder. The main indications for these medications are: Suppression of inflammatory and allergic bowel disease; chronic or treatment resistant Asthma and COPD; Immunosuppression in Acute Lymphoblastic Leukemia, Hodgkins and non-Hodgkins disease, and Hormone sensitive breast cancer; Palliation of symptomatic end-stage malignant disease; Organ transplant rejection; Auto-immune (Rheumatic) disease such as Systemic Lupus Erythematosis and Wegners Granulomatosis. Corticosteroids are rapidly absorbed across the Gastro Intestinal  membrane following oral administration. Peak effects can be observed after 2 hours. The circulating drugs bind extensively to the plasma proteins Corticosteroid Binding Globulin (CBG), albumin and transcortin, with only the unbound portion of a dose active. Systemic prednisolone is quickly distributed into the kidneys, intestines, skin, liver and muscle. Corticosteroids also distribute into the breast milk and cross the placenta. Corticosteroids are predominantly metabolized by the liver to active metabolites then further metabolized to inactive compounds. These inactive metabolites, as well as a small portion of unchanged drug, undergo urinary excretion. The plasma elimination half-life is 1 hour whereas the biological half-life of prednisone is 18-36 hours. Corticosteroids act as glucocorticoid receptor agonists. On binding, the corticoreceptor-ligand complex translocates itself into the cell nucleus, where it binds to Glucocorticoid Response Elements (GRE) in the promoter region of target genes. Insert Figure 1 about here The DNA bound receptor then interacts with basic transcription factors, altering gene expression. There are high concentrations of CBG in specific brain areas such as the hippocampus and pre-frontal cortex and these can therefore be thought of as a potential mediator of corticosteroid induced psychiatric disorder. Chronic disease and corticosteroids In parallel to the psychiatric side effects of corticosteroid therapy, most chronic medical conditions may be associated with considerable psychiatric morbidity. A primary objective of the psychiatrist is to distinguish between the psychiatric effects of chronic illness and corticosteroids. The 1-year prevalence for ICD-10 depressive episode alone is 3 ·2% (95% CI 3 ·0-3 ·5) and an average of between about 9% and 23% of patients with one or more chronic physical diseases have co-morbid depression. In an international meta-analysis, patients with a variety of chronic physical diseases and co-morbid depression had significantly worse health scores than those with chronic disease alone. (Moussavi et al 2007) There are many potential reasons for this, including physical symptoms such as pain and secondary disability leading to loss of function. Studies of depression amongst the medically ill almost always fail however to account for possible corticosteroid effects. In patients with severe COPD given 30 mg of prednisolone for 14 days, when lung spirometry and mood state were measured, no changes in spirometry were detected until 7 days of active therapy. However, small but significant reductions in anxiety and depression were measured after 3 days of prednisolone and before any measurable improvement in lung function. This single study is a major part of a small evidence base suggesting that corticosteroids produce a mild sense of wellbeing rather than the wellbeing necessarily being a consequence of physical improvement. (Swinburn et al 1988) Classification, Epidemiology and Clinical Features Psychiatric side effects were first described and classified by Rome and Braceland in 1952 shortly after the initial introduction of corticosteroids into the pharmacopoeia. As can be noted in Table 1, the descriptions of symptoms in 1952 have an implicit hierarchy which places psychosis above ego disturbance of a neurotic nature and places these above euphoria. (Rome and Braceland 1952) Insert Table 1 about here Epidemiology The proportion of patients developing psychiatric symptoms during corticosteroid therapy has been reported to range from 3 to 75 percent, with a weighted average of about 28 percent. (Lewis and Smith 1983) Amongst the larger studies, the Boston Collaborative Drug Surveillance Program (Boston Collaborative Drug Surveillance Program 1972) monitored 718 hospitalized medical patients who received prednisolone, of whom just 21 (3%)had acute psychiatric reactions: in 6 of 463 (1%) patients receiving 40mg prednisolone, 8 of 175 (5%) patients receiving 41-80mg and 7 of those receiving above 80mg (18%). The dose-response trend was significant, but the study was conducted in 1972 and deals with relatively small numbers of affected subjects who underwent only a basic psychiatric screening. In terms of speed of onset, symptoms appear to develop rapidly. In groups of both patients and healthy subjects, psychiatric symptoms occurred between 3 days and one week. (Lewis and Smith 1983, Hall 1979, Naber 1996) Evidence shows that significantly more women than men (P =0.009) develop psychiatric symptoms as a function of corticosteroid treatment. (Nielsen et al 1963) Prednisolone is the medication most cited to cause psychiatric side effects. In case reports, prednisolone was responsible for 37 cases followed by methylprednisolone, dexamethasone betamethasone, and hydrocortisone. (Lewis and Smith 1983) When dose equivalences were calculated, ranging from 5 to 200mg prednisolone per day, a mean dose of 58.3mg per day or more was cited as substantially raising the risk of a psychiatric reaction. This does not mean that psychiatric reactions only occur at higher dosages. While dosage is not related to the risk of developing mental disturbances, dosage nor duration of treatment seems to impact upon the time of onset, duration, severity, or type of mental disturbances and it is unclear whether patients with a history of psychiatric disorder are predisposed to such disturbances. (Ling 1981) Affective Symptoms The most common psychiatric reaction during glucocorticoid therapy is mood change, which accounts for almost 90 percent of the psychiatric reactions (Hall 1979, Stiefel 1989) In a review of 56 case studies of psychiatric reactions to steroids, of those reporting mood symptoms (45 cases), mania was observed in 48%, depression in 25%, and a mixed state in 9%. (Flores and Kenna) Reversible mood change can be seen in healthy control subjects after administration of prednisone and dexamethasone. One study showed that 8/12 healthy controls experienced this, with manic symptoms predominating. (Brown 1998) A further study which looked at methylprednisone in ophthalmology patients, all of whom were free of psychiatric disorder, found that 36% developed mania or depression during high dose steroid treatment. (Naber 1996) Studies examining the consequences of low dose steroid treatment have found little or no affective symptomatology (Swinburn 1988). With regard to steroid induced mania, patients typically report sudden euphoric mood, excessive energy, indefatigability and some grandiosity. In addition to the rapid development of mood symptoms, suicidality can be associated with steroid treatment. (Flores and Kenna). In addition to mood symptoms patients have been reported to experience sleep disturbances and weight gain. Recurrent affective disorder A further important consideration is whether any such affective disturbance involves one isolated episode or leads on to recurrent disorder. Nine patients whose initial clinical presentation met DSM-IV criteria for a steroid-induced mood disorder were shown in the long term to have a clinical course of bipolar disorder. (Wada 2001) Seven patients initially developed a manic or hypomanic state with sub-acute onset ranging from 1 to 3 months and six patients had manic episodes accompanied by psychotic features. The proportion of manic episodes relative to total mood episodes of the 9 patients was 66%, suggesting manic predominance. Seven patients had future mood episodes that had no direct relationship to corticosteroid therapy and were preceded by various psychosocial stressors. Four of 5 patients who received future steroids rapidly became manic or hypomanic. Recurrent cases of corticosteroid-induced mood disorder therefore appear to have clinical features such as sub-acute onset, fr equent accompanying psychotic features, and similar recurrent episodes in association with psychosocial stressors and corticosteroid use. Psychotic Symptoms In a review of 55 case reports of steroid induced psychiatric disorder, 58% of cases demonstrated psychotic symptoms. (Ling 1981) In 72% of the cases with psychotic symptoms, they were combined with an affective disorder. Similarly, in a review of 79 case reports there was a 71% incidence of psychotic symptoms with affective symptoms reported in over 75% of these. Hallucinations occurred in 58% of the cases and delusions in 74% .(Lewis and Smith 1983) In a more recent review of 56 case reports, psychotic symptoms were reported in 65% of cases. In eight of these, the development of psychotic symptoms was more clearly associated with the withdrawal, rather than with the administration, of steroids. (Flores and Kenna) Interestingly, but perhaps coincidentally, seven of these eight cases occurred in female patients. All eight cases included mood disturbance; 2 with depression, 4 with mania, and 2 with a mixed state. Cognitive effects The cognitive effects of corticosteroid therapy have been seen in patients receiving short term or long-term corticosteroids, and relate primarily to declarative or verbal memory. (Flores and Kenna) In one study, patients on corticosteroids had poorer performance on the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT), (a measure of declarative memory), the Stroop Color Word Test (a measure of working memory) performance, smaller hippocampal volumes and lower levels of N-acetyl aspartate (a putative marker of neuronal viability in the temporal lobe region). (Brown 2001) Deficits in declarative memory have been observed in subjects receiving as low as 4 to 5 days of dexamethasone or prednisone. (Newcomer 1999) A dose-dependent impairment in declarative memory has been reported with high dose (160 mg/day), but not low dose (40 mg/day) hydrocortisone. It appears that these cognitive impairments may be reversed with the reduction or withdrawal of corticosteroids. Similar results for declarative memory deficits are found in persons with Cushings disease. Such findings are consistent with reductions in hippocampal volume which are correlated with cortisol levels. (Starkman 1992) Steroid Dependence and withdrawal Several case reports suggest that corticosteroids may be abused for their euphoric effects. (34) Typically this will involve higher doses of oral systemic steroids although there is one report of dependence secondary to a nasal spray. (35) In a case review, 8 patients out of 11 cases of steroid dependency had a previous psychiatric history (predominantly depressive symptomatology), and 4 had a history of drug or alcohol mis-use or dependence. It has been suggested that patients who may request higher steroid doses or who resist dose reduction despite their improving health should be carefully monitored. (Stoudemire 1994) In the more recent review of case studies (Flores and Kenna), the development of psychiatric symptoms was also associated with the withdrawal of steroids. Corticosteroid withdrawal symptoms generally include depression and fatigue but mania and delirium have also been reported during dose reduction or discontinuation. Psychiatric symptoms during steroid withdrawal generally improve or resolve when corticosteroids are re introduced. Cushings disease and psychiatric disorder Cushings syndrome relates to the multi-organ over exposure of iatrogenic or endogenous corticosteroid and is associated with a variety of psychiatric and psychological disturbances. In one study examining 43 patients before and after treatment for Cushings psychopathology was observed in a considerable number. Only 8 patients of 43 with active Cushings syndrome (19%) were without psychiatric symptoms. Psychiatric diagnoses included: neurotic depression in 20 (46%), possible neurotic depression in 1 (2%), reactive depression in 6 (14%), and non-specific neurotic symptoms in 8 (19%). Psychoses were suspected in 3 of the patients who were depressed, but none of the 43 patients with active Cushings syndrome had a definite diagnosis of Schizophrenia, Mania, Obsessive Compulsive Disorder or Generalised Anxiety Disorder. After treatment in 25 patients, when cortisol levels had been substantially reduced (to within normal limits in 88% of them), the percentage rated as psychiatrically asymptomatic increased from 19% to 68%. Scores for depression and anxiety showed significant improvements after treatment for Cushings syndrome and Eysenck Personality Inventory assessments showed a significant improvement in neuroticism score. (Kelly 1996) Treatment of Corticosteroid induced psychiatric disorder There is a very limited literature on the treatment of corticosteroid induced mental disorder, although it can be noted from the forgoing that psychiatric symptoms generally resolve with discontinuation of the medication. In one review of the literature, tapering the dose of steroids alone appears to be effective up to 90% cases. (Flores and Kenna) Case studies also suggest that switching steroids may be of value. (Okishiro et al 2009) The primary objective in managing these conditions is to balance the relative risk of psychiatric disturbance against the medical consequences of withdrawing the steroid. The management of corticosteroid induced psychiatric disorder can otherwise be largely divided into managing an acute psychotic/manic episode versus managing long term depressive symptoms and dependency. Although little evidence exists either way, it can be assumed that severe behavioral disturbance should be managed as it usually is symptomatically with appropriate doses of benzodiazepines and antipsychotics. In terms of managing acute psychotic/manic episodes one study found that of 27 patients treated with lithium carbonate prophylactically none developed severe mood symptoms while receiving corticosteroids. However, six out of 44 patients (14%) not receiving lithium developed mania or depression. (Falk 1979) Antipsychotics, specifically haloperidol, risperidone and olanzapine, are noted from case reports to be useful in mania, mixed affective states, psychosis and delirium. A further case report suggested the successful use of low-dose olanzapine (2.5 mg/day) for severe mood swings and suicidal ideation in a patient with asthma on chronic prednisolone therapy. With regard to depressive symptoms, several case reports have demonstrated some evidence with lithium following the onset of depressive symptoms. Carbemazepine has been reported to be useful in managing both manic and depressive symptoms secondary to corticosteroids. (Wada 2001) There appears to be little benefit from the use of tricyclic antidepressants and in fact, a worsening of neuropsychiatric symptoms has been reported. (Hall 1978) Case reports have been published describing the successful treatment of steroid-induced depression with sertraline, fluvoxamine, and fluoxetine. One such report supports the use of a combination of an antidepressant and antipsychotic in the treatment of steroid-induced psychotic depression (Ismail 2002). Case reports are noted to suggest the effectiveness of benzodiazepines, in the management of specific steroid-induced symptoms as insomnia and anxiety Conclusions Above all, it is clear that the literature on the psychiatric adverse effects of corticosteroids is limited and larger studies on medically ill populations need to be carried out. Clinical practice continues to be informed by case reports despite over 50 years of awareness of these problems. There exists a great opportunity for future research to find predictors of steroid response including their genetic and neuroimaging antecedents and it is clear that the literature could be enhanced with prospective studies and clinical trials. The ICD 10 codes steroid induced psychiatric disorder under F55.5 Abuse of non-dependence-producing substances Steroids or Hormones. No distinction is made about type or chronicity of symptoms. Arguably it may be more useful to classify steroids induced psychiatric disorder under F19.-Mental and behavioral disorders due to multiple drug use and use of other psychoactive substances. Corticosteroid induced psychiatric disorder can pragmatically be classified at present as described in table 2. Insert Table 2 about here With regard to the acute corticosteroid syndrome, the clinical presentation can be diverse but the severity of the symptoms appears to be dose dependent and they tend to occur within the first week of steroid administration. Affective symptoms are most common and a hypomanic/manic presentation is most likely. Some patients appear to have sub clinical hypomanic symptoms which they do not report. Symptoms resolve in most cases on discontinuation of the steroid. Cases are best treated with a mixture of a mood stabilizer (possibly prophylactically) and antipsychotic. With regards to chronic steroid syndrome, the merits of continuation of the steroid must be considered and a small literature suggests that depression in this group can be managed with an SSRI and not a tricyclic antidepressant. In patients who are on long term steroids, a dependence and withdrawal syndrome may be seen. No evidence exists as to how this should be managed but again negotiation should occur between the clinicians and the patient on the need for steroids and a gradual tapering of dose should be considered. Presently it is not known whether individuals have idiosyncratic reaction to steroids or that, given a high enough dose everyone would suffer some mental disturbance. There is a suggestion that those with a previous affective disorder or a family history may be more susceptible to the adverse effects of steroids. If as many as 27% of those on high dose steroids suffer psychiatric symptoms, it is surprising that millions of patients do not present to psychiatric services. Case vignette: Steroid-induced psychosis A 40-year-old woman was admitted to a GI ward for corticosteroid treatment as a result of a flare-up of her inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Her previous psychiatric history included recurrent depression, for which she had been successfully prescribed fluoxetine by her GP for several years. She was treated for 5 days with prednisolone 40mg IV which was then switched to oral prednisolone prior to her discharge home. Over the next week she progressively became increasingly irritable, experiencing hyperacusis, preferring to stay up all night doing housework and decorating, and suffered from marked lability of mood, fluctuating from euphoria to extreme despair and tearfulness, and anxiety. She began to experience command hallucinations of her late father, who had suffered from schizophrenia, telling her to kill herself, as he had in fact done a number of years earlier. She experienced delusions of being unclean and malodorous. She was visibly seen to be responding to unseen stimuli. She was unable to leave her home for fear that people wished to harm her. On day 5 post-discharge her family sought help from her GP who recommended that she stop her steroids, after noting that 18 years earlier she had experienced a similar episode in response to steroid treatment for her Crohns disease. Her GP prescribed Chlorpromazine but unfortunately the patient developed a marked pill-rolling tremor and akathisia. Next day the patient attended a GI outpatient clinic and due to her distress and anxiety a psychiatric opinion was immediately sought. She was informally admitted and commenced on olanzepine and diazepam with a significant diminution of her psychosis and anxiety such that after a few days she was able to be discharged home. Over the next several weeks she was closely followed-up by liaison psychiatry as an outpatient. Her psychotic symptoms had completely resolved with olanzapine treatment. She did, however, continued to experience low mood and anxiety as a result of on going stress associated with her IBD and required further treatment with antidepressant medications.